Therefore, the sense of a common regional identity that has been argued to exist at the elite level by Acharya has to be broadened to include the ordinary people of ASEAN. Research reveals that the transformation that marred the region was as a result of Japan's unique focus . Moreover, it is unfair to say that ASEAN has no cultural and geographical foundation for the creation of a shared community and collective identity. First, the Japanese attempted to mobilize indigenous populations to support the war effort and to encourage modern cooperative behaviour on a mass scale; such a thing had never been attempted by Western colonial governments. Steinberg, David Joel. Southeast AsiaSocial conditions20th century. To reverse this, ASEAN must quickly shed its image as an exclusive club for the elite and maximize public participation if it wishes to build a genuine ASEAN community. These solidarity-building measures will eventually trickle down to the grass-root level and help construct a collective ASEAN identity. Nevertheless, it was uncertain whether these efforts would be sufficient to withstand the pressures of the immediate future. Acharya argues that this is an authentic identity that the ASEAN ruling elite has consciously constructed and build-on since ASEANs establishment and has resulted in a cognitive imagining of Southeast Asia as a genuine ASEAN community (ibid.). Smith, Anthony L. ASEANs Ninth Summit: Solidifying Regional Cohesion, Advancing External Linkages. Contemporary Southeast Asia 26, no. Few individuals in Southeast Asia would identify themselves with as an ASEAN citizen and share very little affinity with their counterparts in other member states. _____________. For instance, Acharyas work on normative regionalism argues that a collective identity has been successfully constructed among the political elites of Southeast Asian states through intense interaction and socialization (Acharya 2002). Consider the effect of Western (and in particular European) colonialism. Deparochializing Education: Globalization, regionalization, and the formation of an ASEAN education space. Discourse: studies in the cultural politics of education 28, no. Attempts made by the early nationalist leaders of Malaysia and Indonesia to create a Pan-Malay world lend further credence to the existence of long and deep affinities in the region (Mcintyre 1973). The Thai may have colonized themselves, as some critics have noted, but in so doing they also escaped or diluted some of the more corrosive characteristics of Western rule, among them racism and cultural destruction. In essence, ASEAN is an attempt by political elites to re-imagine the region in form but not in substance. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar. London: George Eyre and Andrew Strahan, 1810. Puchala, Donald J. Patterns of a colonial age Crisis and response. "What impact did Western imperialism and colonialism have on Asia" . For more, see Barry Desker and Ang Chen Guan, Perspectives on the Security of Singapore: The First 50 Years (Singapore: World Scientific, 2015). In the last half of the 18th century, all the major states of Southeast Asia were faced with crisis. The Japanese had no plans to radicalize or in any way destabilize Southeast Asiawhich, after all, was slated to become part of a Tokyo-centred Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere; in the short term they sought to win the war, and in the long run they hoped to modernize the region on a Japanese model. Indigenous Knowledge and Peoples Network for Capacity Building in Mainland Montane South-East Asia (IKAP) Network for Capacity Building in Mainland Southeast Asia. There is little mention of a dynamic, borderless pre-colonial Southeast Asia that could explain the many similarities in cultural heritage, values and belief systems of Southeast Asians. However, these works stopped short of explaining the origin of their fixation on the Westphalian principles of state sovereignty and their national boundaries. Such integration would need to make people feel that they belong to a shared community and that they are all fellow stakeholders with a common destiny (ibid.). As Tan explains, cultural markers are able to create meaning for the peoples world when interwoven into their lives in the forms of mundane experience, ordinary actions, and common sense (Tan 2000). The roots for regionalism has always been shallow and are mainly driven by pragmatic political and economic considerations. The colonial rulers also normalized the use of a common language for administrative communication such as the English language in the British East Indies, Vietnamese in French Indochina and Bama in Burma (Reid 2015). He is also a member of the Young Leaders Program of the Honolulu-based Pacific Forum. They were backed by the enormous economic resources of the industrialized Western nations, and by the early 20th century, having effectively disarmed the indigenous societies, they possessed a monopoly on the means of violence. However, these theses that have utilized the analytical frameworks of international relations theories often exaggerate the difficulty in building a regional community as a natural outcome of rational self-interest among states (Kim 2011; Yoshimatsu 2016). 3 (2004): 423-450. Historical evidences indicate that the pre-colonial Southeast Asian possessed a worldview that did not conform to the Westphalian notion of territorial sovereignty. Singapore in the Malay World: Building and Breaching Regional Bridges. Tadem, Eduardo C. New Perspectives on Civil Society Engagement with ASEAN. Heinrich Bll Stiftung. The consequences were to benefit local rather then Japanese causes and, ironically, to contribute handsomely to the building of anti-Japanese sentiments. Before the discovery of America and the sea route to Asia, the Mediterranean had been the trading and naval centre of Europe and the Near East.Italian seamen were rightly considered to be the best, and they commanded the first royally sponsored transatlantic expeditionsColumbus for Spain, John Cabot for England, and Giovanni da Verrazano for France. _____________. S. Rajaratnam School of InternationalStudies, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 22 February 2012. While colonialism brought some positive changes, such as the introduction of new ideas and technologies, it also had negative consequences, such as economic inequality and political instability. In the survey carried out by Christopher B. Roberts in 2007, while 37.5% of the grassroots respondents said that they could trust all the countries in Southeast Asia to be good neighbours, 36.1% were unsure and 26.4% answered no to the question. 3 (2004): 573598. ASEAN Vision 2020. Accessed 15 January, 2018. http://asean.org/?static_post=asean-vision-2020. From the 16th century until the 20th century, the major colonizers in Southeast Asia were European powers, including the British, French, Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese. Any memory of pre-colonial affinities and common past that could have served as the foundation of a regional identity have also been erased. These statements serve as an indicator that ASEAN is not united by any geographical or historical linkages but rather material and political-economic interests, whereas Southeast Asia remains a region where cultures, histories, language and ethnic identities overlap and cross-fertilize one another. Sharpe, Samuel. French colonists were interested in acquiring land, exploiting . See the works of Amitav Acharya, Malcolm Chalmers, Kishore Mahbubani and Khong Yuen Foong. Despite so, the political elites of ASEAN has thus far failed to develop a degree of ASEAN consciousness in both its bureaucrats and citizens that will nudge them to re-think themselves as a citizen of the wider ASEAN body. On the contrary, ordinary citizens at the grass-root level do not have their hands tied in the same manner. Citizens of ASEAN have very little knowledge about their neighbouring countries, not to mention fellow member states that are located further away (Thuzar 2015). Koi Kye Lee. The political elites of ASEAN also continue to look at their neighbouring countries with much suspicion (ibid.). Berlin: Lit Verlag, 2010. The most important reasons for the change were a growing Western technological superiority, an increasingly powerful European mercantile community in Southeast Asia, and a competitive scramble for strategic territory. Located at the crossroad between China and India, the region has historically been exposed to a constant stream of external cultural and political influence. Emmerson, Donald K. Security, Community, and Democracy in Southeast Asia: Analyzing ASEAN. Japanese Journal of Political Science 6, no. 1 (April 2017): 127-148. Another obstacle was that the ordinary people, especially outside cities and towns, inhabited a different social and cultural world from that of the emerging leaders. Unfortunately, the current education systems of ASEAN states are not well-equipped to support such a venture (Koh 2007). A statue of Sir Stamford Raffles marks the spot where he is believed to have first landed in 1819, on the north bank of the Singapore River . ASEAN today is in a state of an identity crisis. Unintentionally, of course. Henceforth, national identities are framed in the context of oppositional dialectics which highlights the uniqueness of their nation-states vis--vis their external neighbors; a case of us versus them (Noor 2015). Effects of the discoveries and empires. Engendering a Deep Sense of ASEAN Identity and Destiny. In Framing the ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community Post-2015, ERIA Research Project Report 2014-01, edited by Intal, Jr. P., V. Anbumozhi, F. Zen, H. Nishimura and R. Prassetya, 209-231. The article argues that as national interests and an exclusive worldview predominates in ASEAN, it remains an arduous task for the generation of the kind of we-feeling that is required to fulfill the goals as articulated in the ASEAN Vision 2020. Negative effects of colonialism. As a result of these divisive colonial policies, ethnic identities and differences were artificially accentuated which created an outlook of dichotomized, binary identities anchored by an othering mindset of Native vs. Aliens and Race vs. Race (Hirschman 1995). However, this continues to be contested by the government of Malaysia. 1 (June 2010): 99-122 Political Community and the North Atlantic Area: International Organization in the Light of Historical Experience. Renewed power rivalry between the US and China has also forced the region to look for new ways to balance their interests (Acharya 2017: 25-38). According to Karl W. Deutsch, the building of a community occurs only when a group of people develop common values to the point whereby a sense of we feeling and solidarity is shared among its members (Deutsch et al, 1957). The exception was Thailand, but even here Western ideas about pathways to "modernization" exerted a strong influence. Forming a security community: lesson from ASEAN. International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 7, no. Europe controlled most of Southeast Asia by the 1890s. In the last half of the 18th century, all the major states of Southeast Asia were faced with crisis. Many historians of East and Southeast Asia conclude that it is impossible to understand the region in the present without an understanding of the impact of the West on Asia during the colonial period. ASEAN centrality in these key regional platforms has afforded it with a voice at the global level (Vejjajiva 2017: 89-102). By the end of colonial rule, any early semblance of a regional identity had become blurred and forgotten as nationalism developed (Steinberg 1971). Title. This led to the adoption of the motto, One Vision, One Identity, One Community, at the eleventh ASEAN Summit in December 2005, which signaled a realization by the ASEAN political leaders that a true ASEAN community must be a community of its people based on common ASEAN values and a collective ASEAN identity. 1 (2002): 93-109. This will require both the political elites and citizens of ASEAN to break away from the inherited baggage of colonialism and abandon the language game of fixed, stable and exclusive identities. The deeper connections between an earlier era of urban development and colonialism become apparent when looking at these shareholders and where they got the capital that they invested in the forms of segregation that became foundational for the rise of Jim Crow. K.N Chaudhuris (1990) research shows that pre-colonial Southeast Asia was a multi-polar world with overlapping spheres of geographic, economic and political system all co-existing simultaneously. Elsewhere, war and confusion held societies in their grip for much shorter periods, but everywhere rulers were compelled to think of changed circumstances around them and what they meant for the future. Since then, the ASEAN leaders have repeatedly acknowledged the necessity in fostering a sentiment of we feeling and shared belonging that will inform efforts towards regionalism and facilitate greater regional cooperation. Beyond China, European imperialism in Asia remained strong. Consequently, an unsatisfactory rejection on the possibility of the formation of a genuine ASEAN community is often made. The French colonisation of Vietnam began in earnest in the 1880s and lasted six decades. As this article has shown, this need for ASEAN to re-define itself emanates from the political elites of ASEAN themselves. Acharya, Amitav. Pedra Blanca: ICJ to hear Malaysias challenge in June. The Straits Times, April 7, 2018. http://www.straitstimes.com/politics/pedra-branca-icj-to-hear-malaysias-challenge-in-june. Biba, Sebastian. Secondly, the strategic location of ASEAN states means that it will always remain an area of contestation between external major powers (Prasetyono 2007: 109-116; Steinberg 1971). Still, despite Western disbelief, there was considerable resentment of colonial rule at the lower levels of society. Denoon, David B.H. Siam, which through a combination of circumstance and the wise leadership of Mongkut (ruled 185168) and Chulalongkorn (18681910) avoided Western rule, nevertheless was compelled to adopt policies similar to, and often even modeled on, those of the colonial powers in order to survive. The idea of opposing Dutch rule, furthermore, was not abandoned entirely, and it was only the devastating Java War (182530) that finally tamed the Javanese elite and, oddly enough, left the Dutch to determine the final shape of Javanese culture until the mid-20th century. The demarcation of well-defined political boundaries by the colonial powers effectively divided Southeast Asia into neat blocks of compartmentalized colonies. Early Southeast Asian subjects were extremely mobile and did not owe their allegiance to any fixed locality. 233. Continuity served these purposes best, and in Indochina the Japanese even allowed the French to continue to rule in return for their cooperation. Impacts. Weatherbee, Donald E. Southeast Asia and ASEAN running in place. In Southeast Asian Affairs 2012, edited by Daljit Singh and Pushpa Thambipillai, 3-22. Post-Cold War diplomacy and the idea of regional community. The Pacific Review 15, no. Thailand Escaped Colonialism, But Still Adapted Western Ideas. Vietnam, Indonesia, Cambodia, and Laos all have civil law systems. The revolts, and the economic disarray of the Great Depression, also suggested that European rule was neither invulnerable nor without flaws. Towards Community Formation in Southeast Asia? Jones, Catherine. As a starting point, the citizens of ASEAN will need to depart from their present understanding of the regions history, accept the artificiality of the modern-day national boundaries and develop a greater awareness of the close historical and cultural linkages that exist among them. Mcintyre, Angus. Does Identity or Economic Rationality Drive Public Opinion on European Integration? PS: Political Science and Politics 37, no. For instance, racialised colonial capitalismwas implemented across the colonies in which a racialized hierarchy was introduced that stratified ethnic communities into their respective social and economic roles (Noor 2106). Thus, the history of a single nation-state in Southeast Asia cannot be explained without invariably tying it up to the histories of other nation-states in the region. All this deteriorated the mental as well as physical freedom and conditions of the colonized . As such, a ground-up approach may offer greater prospects in the creation of a collective regional identity and go a long way in helping to develop a shared sense of belonging that transcends national boundaries. These would lay the groundwork for political identities to be based on exclusivity and complicate the quest for nation-building and regionalism after independence was achieved by the colonial states. As explained, the political elites of ASEAN continue to be trapped as highly sovereignty-conscious actors while at the same time espousing the contradictory goals of regional integration and a shared identity. The Japanese were wary of these people because of their Western orientation but also favoured them because they represented the most modern element in indigenous society, the best partner for the present, and the best hope for the future. Regionalism and Multilateralism: Essays on Cooperative Security in the Asia Pacific. While there is no doubt that national belonging will remain far more salient to the Southeast Asians sense of self as they will find it difficult to escape from the well-embedded consciousness of the nation-states, they can however become aware of the possibilities of overlapping identities that directs them to think of themselves not only a citizen of their respective nation-states but also an ASEAN citizen who sees the entire Southeast Asia region as a common home. Chinese Influence Contested in Southeast Asia: Domestic Political Economy Matters. A collective ASEAN worldview can be forged through the use of these cultural markers. The fact that the principle of non-interference is upheld as the working principle of ASEAN since its founding is an indication of such a mindset. They wanted to gain monopoly over the spice trade as this trade was very valuable to the Europeans due to high demand for various spices such as pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves.This demand led to the arrival of Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, and later French and British marine spice . These challenges would require ASEAN member states to re-orientate their course of actions for closer cooperation in order to act as a counterweight against these external powers attempting to influence events in the region and this ability is invariably tied to the degree of cohesion within ASEAN (Yoshimatsu 2012). In addition, his evidence for the existence of a collective identity remains focused on functional aspects, namely, member states adherence to ASEAN norms such as the principle of non-interference and absolute respect for national sovereignty (Acharya 2005). Similarly in May 2017, Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte advocated for the inclusion of Mongolia and Turkey in ASEAN (Koi 2017). Within the colonies themselves, the colonial rulers also imported their Social Darwinism beliefs and instituted a series of divisive policies and social structures which developed an othering mindset among its colonial subjects. A native of the Mandailing community living in Sumatra should be able to identify himself/herself as an ethnic Mandailing, an Indonesian and a contributing ASEAN member all at once. Rana Mitter, is Professor of the History and Politics of Modern China at Oxford University. Full-blown, modern colonial states existed for only a short period, in many cases for not much more than a generation. Thus, as aptly described by Jones and Smith, ASEAN remains largely an imitation community that are rhetorical shells and provides form but no substance to genuine regional integration (Jones and Smith 2002). In many others, independence was achieved only after a protracted revolution. 2 (May 2015): 259-280. Regional integration is therefore mainly seen as a mean to allow the nation-state of Southeast Asia to obtain political and economic objectives that it is unable to achieve alone (Kim 2011). The great political and social structures of the classical states had begun to decay, and, although the reasons for this disintegration are not altogether clear, the expanded size of the states, the greater complexity of their societies, and the . 3 (July 2011): 365-382. A map of Asia by Sebastian Munster dated in 1598 further illustrate the absence of territorial boundaries across the entire Southeast Asia region and depicted the region as a continuum in which its inhabitants perceived it as a shared common space (Munster 1598). From neighbourhood watch group to community? From the Editor: Southeast Asias Artful Diplomacy? Southeast Asia was changed in an evolutionary, rather than revolutionary, way by the Japanese occupation. How Pol Pot Came to Power: Colonialism, Nationalism, and Communism in Cambodia, 1930-1975. It is also likely that European efforts to choke and redirect the regions trade had already done much to destroy the general prosperity that trade previously had provided, though Europeans were neither ubiquitous nor in a position to rule, even in Java. First of all, the integration of ASEAN economies with the wider Asia-Pacific region has exposed the region to the negative effects of globalization which are keenly felt by all member states. Recent developments in Southeast Asia, particularly in India, Japan, and Hong Kong, tell volumes about this project. Great powers, ASEAN, and security: reason for optimism?. The Pacific Review 28, no. As national interests and identities predominate in ASEAN, it has become an arduous task for the generation of the kind of we-feeling that is required for the building of a regional community as articulated in the ASEAN Vision 2020. Production of tin, oil, rubber, sugar, rice, tobacco, coffee, tea, and other commodities burgeoned, driven by both government and private activity. A history of Southeast Asia: critical crossroads. Asia Before Europe: Economy and Civilisation of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750. Brain drain. For example, Pohnpei, an island state of the Federated States of . Modernization appeared to require such an approach, and the Thai did not hesitate to embrace it with enthusiasm. The effects of colonialism on Southeast Asia were both positive and negative, and have shaped the course of the region's history and development. Britain moved into Hong Kong in 1842, into Burma in 1886, and into Kowloon in 1898. Despite the fact that the imperative to create a shared sense of ASEAN belonging and we-feeling comes from the political elites and bureaucrats of ASEAN themselves, it may remain a challenge to expect such a mental leap to be taken and led by them. This brought rapid changes to the physical and human landscape and coupled Southeast Asia to a new worldwide capitalist system. From the Editor Myanmars Transition Stalled: From Opening to Coup, The International Court of Justice ruled in favour of Cambodia in 2013 with the temple of Preah Vihear and most of the nearby land belonging to Cambodia. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1971. The organization creates a vision for regional solidarity yet its people remain trapped in an inherited language game that has defined national identity based on exclusivity and a worldview that accept modern state boundaries as a given political reality. Collective Identity Formation in Asian Regionalism: ASEAN Identity and the Construction of the Asia-Pacific Regional Order. Paper presented at Research Committee Sessions (RC06) Theorising the Role of Identity in the Unfolding of Regionalism: Comparative Perspectives, International Political Science Association. Lee Jun Jie The institution of kingship itself seemed to become more dynamic and intimately involved in the direction of the state. Vatikiotis, Michael R.J. ASEAN 10: The Political and Cultural Dimensions of Southeast Asian Unity. Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science 27, no. China has the world's fastest-growing economy, increasing nearly 10 percent every year for the past 30 years. Like their colonial rulers, the political elites continue to perceive the region as primarily an economic space and securitized region. A second difference between Western and Japanese colonialism was in the opportunities the occupation provided the new educated elite. Ahmad, Kassim. Rather than appropriating shared elements of history, language and material culture as theirs in a nationalistic manner, Southeast Asians should embrace these heritages as a common trove of cultural treasures that is a testament to the cross-cultural hybridization and people-to-people exchange that has been occurring between them generation after generation dating back to the pre-colonial era (Noor 2016). 7. Post-colonial states, ethnic minorities and separatist conflicts: case studies from Southeast and South Asia. Ethnic & Racial Studies 34, no. They must be made aware of the artificiality of modern-day national boundaries and accept that elements of commonality in history, culture, ethnicity and geographies exists in the region. As explained, the creation of an ASEAN community and a collective ASEAN identity still remains an unfulfilled wish. South East Asia Research, 18(1), 5-31. Neo-colonialism is not just any domination, but it is an iniquitous economic relationship wherein a country uses the natural resources of another . _____________. However, as studies have shown, most people living in Southeast Asia remain largely unaware or remain ambivalent of the ASEAN community building initiative and would not identify themselves as a member of the ASEAN Community (Moorthy and Benny 2013; Thuzar 2015). India provides a cautionary tale. As a starting point, the citizens of ASEAN will need to depart from their present understanding of the regions history and develop a greater awareness of the close historical and cultural linkages that exist between them and their counterparts in other member states. Motivated by a need for raw materials and new markets to sustain the industrial development of their metropoles, the European powers embarked on a series of colonizing missions between the 17th to 19th century in Southeast Asia (Christie 1996). Kurlantzick, Joshua. Philippine Literatures in a Derridean Sense: A Problem of (Re)versing the Region? At its formation, none of the member states had envisioned the creation of any collective community that will require them to give up parts of their sovereignty (ibid.). 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